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Environment and Land Use in the City without LimitsIn the Centre for Strategic Urban Research we have defined ”The city without limits” as a development in which urban areas are increasingly
The focus in this project is on the consequences of urban development on environment and land use with particular attention directed at the need for innovative strategies for sustainable urban development. The project takes its starting point in a number of assumptions: First the assumption that development of a ”city without limits” entails risks of increased environmental strain and resource consumption, and thus a risk of a more un-sustainable development than the more traditional cities or urban settlements. This risk is specifically connected to land uses (urban growth and urbanisation of rural areas put pressure on nature and arable land) and to resource consumption as a function of increased mobility based on more complex functional relationships on a larger scale (more car transport and longer trips increase energy consumption). Another assumption is that peri-urban landscapes constitute a resource for towns and cities in ecological respect (metabolism of natural resources, microclimate, biodiversity) but also in relation to the quality of urban environments for the users in terms of recreation and beauty. On the other hand, urban uses of the landscape can give new meanings and functions to traditional agricultural landscapes. Last not least we believe that land use planning and urban policies – based on knowledge at macro and micro level – may push development in a more sustainable direction and thus reduce some of the probable negative environmental effects of a development towards “the city without limits”. This theme has a number of connections to other themes and projects in the centre, mainly on housing and everyday life, on urban policies and strategies and on mapping and documentation. Sustainable urban developmentOne of the most important inspirations for research about urban development and environment over the last 20 years has been the report from the World Commission on Environment and Development (The Brundtland Commission), ”Our common future” (World commission 1987). With worldwide support, this report formulated the now standard definition of sustainable development (”development that meet the needs of the present without jeopardizing the ability of future generation to meet their own needs”). The term ”sustainable urban development”, became hastily part of discourses of urban environmental research and planning practise, and became an important inspiration and pathway for research about urban planning, urban design and land management up through the 1990’ies. The concept of sustainability generally broadened the scope of the urban environment debate and research, giving it a more global and long-term perspective. This meant that the main focus was broadened from the local perspective of urban environment (e.g. urban air quality, noise and traffic safety), to also embrace cities’ interaction with and contribution to global environmental problems (e.g. green house effect). Also more emphasis was put on resource consumption and metabolism at global and regional level rather than only on local pollution, both in a general perspective but also often connected to studies of urban form and energy consumtion (e.g. Girardet 1999, Wackernagel and Rees 1996, Newman & Kenworthy 1992, Næss 1997, Næss & Jensen 2005, Hartoft-Nielsen 2001a, 2001b, 2002a). At the same time, there was an increased focus in Europe on the distinct qualities of the European cities: the cultural heritage, the relative compactness of the urban cores, the classic and liveable urban spaces, the variety in architecture and land uses. This was significantly expressed in the “Green paper on the urban environment” from the Commission of the European Communities (CEC 1990), but also several architects and planners expressed similar views and promoted the qualities of dense and mixed use urban environments (Krier 1984a and 1984b, Urban villages group 1992, Bentley 1985), in line with the contemporary new urbanism thinking in the US. Compact or green urban development? Up through the 1980íes and 90’ies, the academic discussion of sustainable urban development in a land use and planning perspective was concentrated in a discussion of the pro’s and con’s of a decentralised, open urban pattern versus a compact urban development, which ran both among researchers and planners. This discussion, which dates back to the first half of the 20th century with Ebenezer Howard (1898), Lewis Mumford (1938), le Corbusier (1929) and Frank Lloyd Wright 1935) as prominent participants, and with Jane Jacobs (1961) as a later defender of high city densities. In favour of a compact urban development counted its potential for reducing the energy used for transport and heating, and the reduced amount of land occupied by urban purposes, described in a number of studies (fx Newman and Kenworthy 1989, Næss 1993 and 1996, Hartoft-Nielsen 2001a, 2001b, 2002a). Others were more cautious, either questioning the liveability of compact city structures (Breheny 1995, Burton, Williams and Jenks 1996) or the assumed direct causality of the connection between urban form and transport energy consumption (Banister, Watson and Wood 1997, Gordon and Richardson 1989). Some challenged the compact city from an ecological point of view as a threat to urban green structure (Pauleit, Golding and Ennos 2005) or discussed whether and how the implementation of such a policy is possible (Pratt and Larkham, 1996). In the Nordic countries came moreover a number of more qualitative analyses of the qualities (or non-qualities) of compact and mixed use urban environments – primarily in relation to everyday life, provision with urban amenities, cultural heritage and liveability of the urban environment in general (e.g. Saglie 1998, Skovbro 2001, Jørgensen 1992). Urban ecology and the sustainable cityUrban ecology constitutes an alternative path in the discourses about sustainable urban development. Focus is on metabolism of resources in the urban structure, and topics such as water provision, handling of waste and wastewater and the use of green spaces are important – or in short the relation between nature and city. Spirn (1984) and Hough (1995/2004) are classical texts that discuss this field. While discussions on land use, transport and urban development strategies are often taken a top-down regulatory perspective, urban ecology often has a bottom-up perspective, stressing concrete solutions, local initiatives and holistic perspectives (Jensen 1994). The endeavours are directed at minimising and shortening resource cycles through re-circulation and smart technologies. Timothy Beatley (2000) has given a profound look through the European scene for urban ecological strategies. This makes the green structure of cities central as the space which must be present for implementation of smart technologies such as recirculation of waste or wastewater in the small scale, handling of rainwater etc. (COST C11, 2005) or in a Danish context e.g. Guldager et. al 1998). The two discussions – the land use / transportation discourse and the urban ecology discourse has to some extent been estranged to one another. They represent two alternative perspectives on sustainable urban development – top-down planning and regulation at city or regional scale versus bottom up initiatives at local scale – and they have different perspectives on the landscape as a resource for urban development. While the land use orientated path looks at landscapes as an external resource, the urban ecology path look at the urban landscape as an integrative part of the way towards a sustainable urban development. In his review, however, Beatley (2000) has been able to show that the two views can be and are actually combined throughout Europe. Political PractiseSince the Green Paper on the Urban Environment, the European Commission has had an ongoing but thin focus on the urban environment, and on the land use strategies connected to it. The urban environment expert group has existed since 1991 and fathered a number of papers and strategies, which have pointed towards ecosystems thinking, land use planning with a focus on compactness and avoiding urban sprawl, urban environment indicators and good governance (CEC 1990, 1996 and 2002). The latest paper: Towards a Thematic Strategy on the Urban Environment (COM(2004)60) has again and clearly pointed towards a compact city development as “best practise” in a situation of rising housing needs throughout Europe. The paper also calls for urban environments of a high quality in order to ensure the attractivity of the compact city. In Denmark, a mild version of a compact city strategy has been effectuated through the national statements to the regional authorities preceding the 4 yearly up-date of the regional plans. In these statements, which were made up through the 1990’es, the national planning authority placed some pressure on the regional authorities to limit new urban development on green sites in the regional plans (e.g. Landsplanafdelingen 2001). In the Greater Copenhagen area, the policy of localisation of office space near public transport hubs has been strongly promoted from the national level and settled in the regional plan. However such policies are not without conflict. Municipalities are strong, and according to Hartoft-Nielsen (2002b) only half of the office floor-space built during the 1990’ies in the Copenhagen region has been built according to these principles; principles that were strongly questioned by the municipalities in the area. While limitation of urban growth is a matter of conflict, the interest for densification and re-building brownfield sites has been considerable, but also giving rise to critique – not for the general idea but for the consequences for the nearby urban environments (Skovbro 2001, Carlberg and Møller Christensen 2005). The city without limits and its environmental performanceAs stated above, there is an abundant literature on land use and urban environment in a sustainability perspective. Some of this research is focused on the local level, some at city level and some at regional level. What we want to focus on in this project, however, are the impacts of the trends which we see in contemporary urban development and “the city without limits”. This project is not labelled “sustainable city planning”, due to the fact that sustainability in today’s (Danish) discourse has become a rather general concept. Covering economic, social and ecological performance, it has become a quite broad, not very precise, and to some extent empty, concept in the urban development and planning context. Rather we shall focus on the land use (spatial resources) and environmental aspects of recent urban development in Denmark. The number of commuter-regions in Denmark are steadily reducing from 43 in 1992 to 27 in 2004 (Landsplanafdelingen/Nielsen 2005); Commuting between towns in the urban networks is steadily growing (Hovgesen and Nielsen 2005); and some researchers claim that there is only one urban field in Denmark: “The big H” referring to the network of motorways connecting Denmark east to west and north to south (Nielsen and Hemmersam 2004). This deveopment inspires important questions: What happens to the relationship between urban, peri-urban and rural landscapes in such urban structures? How are housing patterns, working patterns and recreational activities connected via mobility in an everyday-life perspective? How does this development affect the metabolism of urban entities? What meaning does compactness have in such urban structure, and what qualities can derive from compact urban structures in the dense city parts? And how does urban planning react to new environmental and land use challenges? These questions are pursued in a number of sub-projects under this theme, but also connected to projects under theme B (Residence, mobility and everyday life). The projects are grouped under three main themes, which are described here in their strictly Danish context. 1. Urban patterns, land use and urban metabolismThe antagonism between compact and open urban development is of relevance for the City without limits, but the city without limits also extends this antagonism. Very compact redevelopment of brownfield and harbour-sites is happening along with dispersion of the urban development: one-family housing developments on green field sites in the peripheries of cities, regional de-concentration of business space, new functional connections and growing travel-activities between urban entities in the city without limits. To which extent a “hidden” urbanisation of rural areas is happening is one of the questions asked in the sub-theme. 2. The city in the landscape – the landscape in the cityThe city without limits integrates peri-urban landscapes with urban greenspace in a metropolitan landscape – an urban landscape network. Peri-urban landscapes of production change into landscapes of nature, recreation, dwelling and business. Strategies are needed for better linking the city with the countryside. In Denmark the responsibility for landscape planning and urban planning has been divided between the regional and the municipal level. From 2007 new and larger municipalities will take over the whole responsibility, which will presumably give new opportunities for a more holistic and strategic planning and integration between the urban areas and their immediate surroundings. It also gives the municipalities an obligation to consider regional landscape- and protection interests in the municipal planning. 3. Planning for sustainable development.The Danish Planning Act has in its objects-clause the ambition that planning must contribute to a sustainable development. This is an admonition to the local authorities, which have the final planning authority. However, a small number of specific provisions in the law (planning in the coastal zone – planning for shopping centres) have been made in order to diminish urban growth in vulnerable coastal areas and ensure the qualities of the urban cores. The city without limits casts light on specific problems related to inter-municipal planning problems especially in the Copenhagen region. Certainly not a new problem, but interesting in relation to infrastructure, localisation strategies and preservation of green wedges between the urban fingers. As the regional level will be (almost) non-existing in the new administrative structure, it is unclear how the supra municipal or regional problems related to environment and land use will be handled in practise. Sub-Projects This main project is realised through a number of sub-projects, which are presented below. These projects are in different stages of realisation.
Some are
already underway, some are ready to start, some still need final clarification
about the financing, and some are at a very initial idea-stage, awaiting both
final description and final financing. We have felt it necessary, however, to
establish a common framework for these projects in order that the projects,
which are ready to start, can do so. 1. The Flows in the Big City Region Stefan Anderberg, Institute of Geography, University of Copenhagen Energy and material flow studies have got increasing attention during recent decades in connection with the search for sustainable development paths. (Anderberg et al. 2000) The goal “ecologically sustainable development” with its implications such as “closing the loops “ and decreasing use of fossil fuels question the spatial structures and arrangements of modern society. Analysis of societal flows is, however, not only a tool for evaluation of resource efficiency and environmental, it may also provide an interesting perspective on society and its development. Societal development is in different ways reflected in changes in flows and flow patterns. Changed patterns of settlement, work, commuting, trade, production, distribution, leisure activities and use of the landscape in the more dispersed big city region all result in changed flows. The flows and flow patterns of goods, energy and traffic connected to the everyday life of different groups of city region inhabitants differ and change over time. Big cities and densely populated areas are characterised by important flows of raw materials, energy, goods, waste, people and information. These flows have changed dramatically during the 20th century. With the development of the industrialised welfare society, characterised by high consumption and mobility have the societal flows grown dramatically, become more diversified and spatial patterns have changed with the development and expansion of the city region. In the regional context, analysis of energy and material flows has mostly been used for describing summarised flows at a regional level, (see overviews such as Ayres & Simonis 1994; Fischer-Kowalski & Hüttler, 1998; Anderberg et al. 2000). Only few studies have made modest efforts to study flows in their context, e.g. their broader social, economic or landscape setting, and used several levels of scale in the analysis. A major ambition in this sub-study is to develop a more contextual analysis of regional flows through a combination of descriptive overviews and more detailed analysis of strategically selected parts of the flows, which may contribute to an improved understanding of their relationship with different societal structures and their dynamics. The study will both focus on the development of different flows, particularly person transport, goods, waste and energy, in the big city region and target selected parts and activities in connection with various flows. Some studies may be performed with a connection with other centre projects e.g. “the everyday life project” of the programme. The study will consist of three parts:
As a background for further studies of societal flows in the Copenhagen region a comparison between the period around 1960 and the year 2000 is under way. These studies focus on pollution, infrastructures (water, waste, energy), production, consumption and trade (food, chemicals, electronic equipment), and mobility, travel and car traffic. The goal of the first phase (that is to be finished before the end of the year) is to reach a preliminary overview, both concerning the development and data availability and to generate questions and strategies for further more detailed studies.
From environmental point-of-view, traffic is the great unsolved problem of the big city region. There is hardly an adequate understanding of the traffic effects of structural change in society. (EC 2004, Trafikvækstens anatomi) How are traffic flows influenced by changing patterns of workplaces, settlement, service and recreation? There have been several studies about the regional transport situation and development in the Copenhagen region that cover many aspects connected to traffic development. (e.g. Jespersen et al. 2001, Næss 2003) A very relevant study that focuses particularly on the city structure, localisation of dwellings, car dependency and transport behaviour in the Copenhagen region is presented in a recent book by Petter Næss and Ole B.Jensen (2005). Besides the longer historical perspective the studies under this theme have the ambition to complement earlier studies with a number of case studies in relation to important trends in society. Which transports are generated by different types of activities, e.g. financial or research centres, consulting or IT firms, shopping centres, art museums or recreation facilities? Does the localisation of such installations matter? This may be one way of contributing to the understanding of the traffic effects of different trends in society.
Despite a substantial increase in the number of studies (”sustainable consumption” e.g. Journal of Industrial Ecology, Carlsson-Kanyama 2003, Shanahan et al 2003), there are important knowledge gaps and only partial understanding of the relationships between resource use and place of residence, and different age and social groups. How do e.g. consumption patterns vary between those who live in the inner city and those in the suburbs or in the rural commuting areas in the Umland? There are studies in Denmark connecting resource use and place of residence. (e.g. Jensen 1996, Marling & Knudstrup 2001) Within the project on Urban Welfare (http://www.urbanvelfaerd.dk), on-going efforts are made to connect life style, the dwelling (types of housing) and resource consumption in the city context. The studies under this theme has the ambition to look further out in the countryside and particularly focus on the change in resource consumption in connection with a shift of residence. The historical studies will also provide some background on the development and studies comparing different groups at different places.
Resources: Three months per year 2006-2009
financed by Institute of Geography. Participants: Associate Professor Stefan
Anderberg.
2. Spatial development patterns in urban and peri-urban areas NN, Department of Urban and Landscape Studies, Skov & Landskab, KVL The aim of this project is to cast light on the quantitative and qualitative spatial development patterns connected with the “city without limits”. What urban development is actually happening in terms of land use changes? What does it mean to the functional urban cohesion? What does it mean to the peri-urban landscapes and the linkages between urban and rural structures? This project is to be developed further by one new researcher in Department of Urban and Landscape Studies, KVL to be assigned during the next few months. If possible it will be connected to a European (6th framework) project on urban structures and peri-urban landscapes, which has been applied for, but not yet granted. No resources applied for until further notice to the board.
3. Compact Sustainable Cityscapes – Building types and the quality of the environment Poul Bæk Pedersen, Aarhus School of Architecture The purpose for this project is to examine the possibility to develop alternative strategies to the dispersed and diffuse development of the cities. At the same time the project will develop models to new compact cityscapes with challenging urban environment and high quality housing. The project will combine demands for sustainability and the minimising use of resources and urban environment with high architectural quality. The project has to balance between compactness and high quality to natural lightning in housing and inspiring areas related to the housing units. The project includes more disciplines but the priority will be given the architectonic aspect and the 3D-modeling of the compact cityscapes. Environment and Building types in Compact Cityscapes It is the purpose in this project to set up the possibilities for the choices of developments with different patterns, types of buildings and types of housing units for the realisation of urban compactness. In the project chosen types of compact developments will have to be combined with high quality housing and high quality in the urban settlements. In the modelling of the compact cityscape there will be demands for developing housing types and types of housing units, so the access to daylight and natural lightning will guarantee the quality of the housing types. The Strategy for developing compact cityscapes will combine quality of housing and a dramatic lowering of the use of resources in the future urban environment. Control of resources and technical infrastructure The development of the city without limits and the spreading of urban environments to wide territories involve a system of transport and the building of large infrastructural system with great economic costs. This is also a pattern of urban cityscape where the supply with collective transport is difficult and functions in favour of private transport. The development of compactness in the urban environment can contribute to optimising the sector of transport and on the local minimise costs in construction work and the cost of running the road system. Heating of buildings is a great amount of the total energy consumption, and in the city without limits there will be a considerable loss of energy in the pipelines when we talk of collective heating. In the model of the compact city it is possible to reduce the consumption of heating both in relation to pipeline loss and through the general reduction of thermal skin in more compact cityscapes. The compactness could also give the possibility to increase the profitability in local production of heating and electricity. The project will analyse the borders and difficulties in relation to existing technical supply systems both in relation to companies and in relation to local technical authorities. Conflicts and possibilities in relation to existing urban design and urban planning It is important for the project to analyse the public planning in relation to the goals of sustainability. And it is important to expose obstacles in legal and administrative systems to the realisation of sustainable urban settlements. The framework in the local planning system will be exposed in relation to the establishing of compact sustainable cityscapes. This is a summary of a more detailed project description in Danish. Resources: The project is planned for a total of 58 man months, running from 2005-2008. The total budget is 3.6 million DKK ( 475.000 Euro). Financing from Centre for Strategic Research: 400.000 DKK. Participants: Project leader Poul Bæk Pedersen, Aarhus School of Architecture.
Other
participants are Danish Institute of Technology. BSAA Architects, Transform
Architects, Birch og Krogboe Engineers, Centre for Forest Landscape and
Planning.
4. Landscape as a resource for urban areas Søren P. Kristensen, Anne Gravsholt Busck, Institute of Geography, University of CopenhagenThe problemThe green areas surrounding urban areas represent an important resource. They are used for food production, recreational activities, residential areas, natural resource extraction and as carriers of cultural and historical identity. The planning policies regulating the use and development of the countryside in Denmark has traditionally been the responsibility of the county administration, which has balanced the use and protection of the countryside from a regional perspective. However, many of the functions and activities mentioned above have also been influenced by planning at the municipal level, which has traditionally regulated urban development and land use. The two-tiered division of planning responsibilities has restricted the development of coherent and integrated planning of rural-urban inter-linkages. This shortcoming has been modified with the transfer of some planning authority for the rural areas to the municipal administration in 2002 and will be radically transformed with the full implementation of the structural reform in Denmark in 2006. The concentration of most planning responsibilities for the local and regional level at the new municipal administrations provides a unique opportunity to produce strategic plans, which balance growth and protection needs and integrate urban areas with the surrounding countryside. A suitable point of departure for the new generation of planning would be to take stock of the experiences gained so far in terms of urban-rural planning and linkages. While countryside planning was the administrative responsibility of county administration, many municipalities have developed more or less explicit and detailed plans for the role of green areas. Many municipalities, especially within commuting distance from major urban centres, actively use the qualities of green areas in settlement campaigns and strategies and as attractor for business and commercial development. Thus, municipal and county planners possess a large pool of knowledge and experience, which represents an essential source of inspiration for future policy formulation. Detailed knowledge of the role of rural areas for urban areas is especially needed today, as rural areas undergo large transformations. The increased in commuter traffic, the demand for cheap housing, the declining economic importance of agriculture, the increased awareness of nature protection and the demand for recreational access to the countryside transform the traditional patterns of land use and growth potentials. For these reasons, it is relevant to investigate how urban areas in different settings demand and exploit the surrounding green areas. What is the character and consequences of their use? What planning options have been used and which need to be developed to answer future planning needs? The objectivesThe purpose of the project is to investigate the planning strategies implemented by municipalities in different locations concerning the use of the green areas surrounding the urban areas. The objective is to identify the consequences of different planning strategies and evaluate elements which may facilitate the sustainable use of countryside resources while allowing economic growth at the same time. An important component of the project will investigate the way actors from the private sector (individuals, companies) perceive municipal planning strategies and the way that planning objectives are translated into reality by these actors. Furthermore, the project aims to support the transfer of knowledge from county to municipal planning administration, to ensure that future municipal planning will be based on relevant and balanced information. Current knowledgePhysical planning and land use policy in Denmark, is organized in the same way for all rural areas and quite differently than for urban areas. Whereas the city border expansion is guided effectively by regional and municipal planning, the rural areas are covered by regional planning and mainly in respect to changes in urban patterns and needs as well as sectoral policies concerning infrastructure, raw material extraction and afforestation. The agricultural landscape as such is not affected by planning. In terms of regulatory measures, the rule-of-thumb is that new housing and summerhouse developments cannot take place in rural areas. As an exception, buildings and activities related to agriculture is not affected by land use legislation. In urban fringe areas, which are characterised by multiple land uses and interests and a pressure for alternative uses of buildings, the current Danish planning system may prove inadequate and consequently the urban fringe develops in a kind of planning vacuum (Primdahl and Kristensen 2003). Central issues The relationships between rural areas and nearby cities (or the cities and the nearby rural areas) vary between contexts – ranging from the high urban pressures on rural areas close to large cities to relatively remote rural areas where the cities are struggling just to keep up the current population. In the close vicinity of large cities rural areas can be seen as a playground for a great variety of interests ranging from ‘genuine’ rural activities such as agriculture and natural habitat protection to housing, recreation, and other essentially urban functions. Through the 20th century, an important challenge has been to balance the need for urban expansion and infrastructure with sufficient and accessible green areas in the proximity of large population concentrations. With the general purpose of providing the urban population with easy access to open green space (apart from city parks) three overall planning models have been developed in different European settings: Green Belt (Elson et. al. 1993, Hall 1982), Green Heart (Kühn 2003) and Finger City (Egnsplankontoret 1948) – the latter model being adopted in the case of Greater Copenhagen. The dynamics of rural areas close to large cities and the importance of applying appropriate planning instruments have been analysed and discussed in a number of publications referring to very different political-administrative contexts but with quite similar issues to tackle, namely urban sprawl, increasing pressures for urban land uses, marginalisation of agriculture, fragmentation of landscape, and increasing land use conflicts in general (Bryant. et al. 1982, Healey et al. 1988, Elson et al. 1993, Ogstrup and Primdahl 1996, Champion 2001, Savage and Lapping 2003, Antrop 2004a and 2004b). The Finger Plan of Greater Copenhagen has proven to be a very effective instrument for regulating urban growth – as the intentions of green corridors reaching close to the inner city is still distinguishable, although the palm is becoming larger than intended and the fingers are swollen. However, a closer examination of the conditions of the green space in between the fingers reveals changes, which may be characterised as a diffuse urbanization. A longitudinal survey on 180 farm properties between 1984 and 2004 in Greater Copenhagen concludes that the rural-urban fringe is dynamic and differentiated - highly affected by urbanization of the social, economic and ecological functions and by rapid changes in the agricultural structure. Even though the development has occurred at different paces in the different study areas, the overall pattern shows that housing functions, non-agricultural enterprises and hobby related livestock are increasing at the expense of intensive agricultural production (Busck and Primdahl, 2005). On a more general level and in a long time perspective the changes may eventually imply that the rural-urban landscapes loose their present open character of mosaic agricultural landscapes and become either more enclosed forest landscapes or more chaotic ‘suburban districts’ with an unstable mixture of agriculture, non-agricultural enterprises, housing and recreational spaces of various kinds. On the other hand the less extensive land use may enhance the quality of the natural habitats. Finally the increasing proportion of persons with no relation to agriculture changes the social structure of the areas. A higher proportion of the citizens will be commuters, leaving the area in the daytime. On the other hand some of the excess farm buildings are changed into housing, resulting in a higher population density and thereby a higher potential for social and cultural activities. In addition this change may lead to increasing expectations and demands for urban-related services. This tendency was investigated in a case study in Gundsø municipality, 20 km from Copenhagen. A questionnaire survey with 125 owners of agricultural properties revealed that only 10% of the properties were full-time farms with no other income. In addition, diversification and other gainful activities was found on 34% of the properties and expected to increase to 43% in the near future. Thus, a mosaic of different motives and land uses characterize the area (Præstholm and Kristensen, 2004). The rural-urban relationships at more remote locations are very different, as farming is the dominating land use in the rural areas and the urban pressure on land is relatively small. The challenges of depopulation in remote rural areas have been analysed in e.g. Portugal (Pinto-Correia 2000) pointing to problems such as lack of investments, skilled labour, young and educated people. Even though the situation is not as severe in Denmark there are still remote communities suffering from stagnation (Indenrigs- og Sundhedsministeriet 2004). These communities experience continued population decline, lack of business development and diversification. In contrast, rural areas often contain rich nature, attractive surroundings and tranquillity which are highly demanded values. The challenge is to develop innovative ideas on how to adequately use the relationship between rural and urban areas to initiate and attract new activities which can generate economic growth. This is being promoted through the nationally developed Rural Development Programmes and by local action groups related to the EU LEADER+ programme. However, only a minority of the projects and activities are centred on the landscape as a resource – other than for agricultural production (Kvistgaard Consult 2003). A recent survey on possible development paths for the remote areas point to the potential of the rural landscape as an important attractor of tourism in rural areas (e.g. hiking, bike tours, horse back riding and golf) (Operate A/S 2005). The current discussions concerning the establishment of National Parks in Denmark also point to the importance of nature and landscapes as a resource in generating economic growth, in particular through tourism and recreational activities. The future Danish rural development program for 2007-2013 highlights the potential resource for economic development offered by the landscapes and countryside in rural settings. Research design The project is designed as a three-phase project. The results of the first two phases provide the foundation for the third phase which consists of discussion and policy recommendations for future management of the landscape resources around urban areas. Phase 1 The first phase will be launched in spring 2006. It consists of a number of workshops with county and municipal planners. The purpose is to jointly identify the key issues, values and themes to investigate in the project. In particular, the analysis of planning priorities, conflicts and needs in a range of different locations will form a significant part of this phase. Furthermore, the purpose is to identify municipalities which have implemented different planning strategies for the management of green areas around urban areas. In connection with the workshops, a preliminary landscape analysis of relevant municipalities will be implemented, to identify past and present land use patterns, future trends and landscape values. The main result of the first phase will be the identification of a number of case areas. Examples might be: 1) A rural area in the peri-urban fringe close to Copenhagen 2) A rural area in the proximity of a larger town 3) A marginal rural area in a more remote location The extent of each case area will follow the borders of a future municipality as defined by the structural reform. This implies that one or several of the current municipalities are included in each case area. Phase 2 The second phase, which represents the bulk of the project, consists of a cross-disciplinary research activity in the selected case areas covering the time span from the first municipality plan until present. It further provides perspectives for the situation after the structural reform is implemented. There are five major activities included in the second phase and both quantitative and qualitative methods will be applied: Firstly, the landscape is characterized and changes in land use and land cover is investigated by means of topographic maps and orthophotos. Secondly, the policy and planning discourse regarding the land zone and its interaction with urban zone is analyzed in the successive generations of municipality plans. The third activity consists of an analysis of administrative practices regarding the land zone administration. The fourth activity includes qualitative interviews with different actor groups about the policies, planning and landscape changes as well as future expectations in the light of the structural reform. Finally, the fifth activity synthesizes the results of the first four activities and including a SWOT-analysis of the future perspectives for rural-urban inter-linkages and land zone. The five activities are further described below: Activity 1 – Landscape trends and potentialsThe aim is to describe landscape characteristics, how the landscape has evolved (since 1970) and the general economic and immaterial potentials it offers. This basic analysis serves as a reference that all other activities in the project can refer to. For example, the analysis of the policy and planning discourse on the land zone over time can be compared with landscape changes during the same period of time. The activity follows up on the preliminary landscape analysis of phase 1 and it includes:
Activity 2 – policy and planning discourse The aim is to synthesize the role of the land zone as formulated in policy documents and how these policies were converted into spatial planning initiatives throughout the period investigated. Changes of the discourse are identified (if they have occurred) and the degree of coherence between policy statements and planning is investigated. The temporal resolution will be defined by the successive revisions of the municipality plan, which constitutes the main source for the analysis. The activity includes:
Activity 3 – administrative practice The aim is to identify whether the administrative practice for the land zone is in accordance with the policy and planning discourse. In 2002 this authority was transferred to the municipalities, and hence the activity will mainly focus on the period after 2002. The activity includes:
Activity 4 – actor group opinionsWhile activity two and three focus on the agency of the municipality council and its administration, the aim of activity four is to include other actor groups, to broaden the scope with both a retrospective evaluation and future perspectives of the role of the land zone and rural-urban inter-linkages in the municipality. Three different actor groups are targeted: Commercial interests (e.g. farmers, foresters, tourist operators and other companies), interest associations (e.g. sport associations and outdoor associations) and the local inhabitants. The selection and number of actors included will depend of the local context. The activity includes:
Activity 5 – synthesis and future possibilities The aim of the fifth activity is to compile the results of the result of the first four activities for each case study area. The policy and planning discourse, the land zone administration and actor group opinions are compared to identify issues of similarities and discrepancies as well as different emphasis on the role of the land zone over time. This is related to how the landscape (land cover and land use) have changed in the same period of time. Finally perspectives for the future role of the land zone are summed up by a SWOT-analysis based on the results. Thus, the activity includes:
Phase 3 The final phase of the project aims at bringing the results from the case studies together. The results of the case studies are compiled in the perspective of the initial typology selected in phase one. Similarities and differences regarding the past experiences and current situation are identified and the perspectives for future development options are compared by means of the SWOT-analysis. The results will be presented in an international context by comparison with situations in other (European) countries. Finally, the policy implications of the results are highlighted to make the research applicable to policy makers. The results will be communicated to planners and policy makers at a workshop and through a set of policy guidelines. Also see: www.geogr.ku.dk/projects/fri-land 5. Nature in the City: an investigation of the relationship between urban form, landscape structure and sustainability. Ph.d. Project, Marion Frandsen, Danish Centre for Forestry, Landscape and Planning, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University Aim The aim of the Ph.D. project is to investigate the relationship between urban form, landscape structure and the strategies that have been put forward for sustainable urban development. A central issue in the academic discussion of sustainable urban development in the 1980s and 1990s has been the potential contradictions between the benefits of urban densification and the need for urban green space. The potential conflict was highlighted in the European Commission’s COST Action C11 Green Structure and Urban Planning: Final Report 2005. The aim of sustainable development can have various consequences for the future form of cities and for urban landscape, depending on whether a “compact” or “green” policy is adopted. The compact city has clearly defined boundaries between countryside and city, and extends over a relatively small area. The city is compact and structures around the public transport network. The landscape in the city consists of urban spaces such as streets, squares, courtyards and parks. Planting is found in parks or as furnishing in urban spaces, whereby the city can be described as “buildings with islands of nature”. The green city integrates city and countryside and extends over a relatively large area. The city is open and structures around interconnected green spaces. The landscape in the city consists of green spaces such as gardens, parks, nature areas and cultivated areas. Planting is found in all spaces, whereby the city can be described as “nature with islands of buildings”. A central issue in the debate about the form and structure of the sustainable city is therefore the question of the relationship between city and nature or building and landscape: the degree to which city and nature should be integrated or separated. The project seeks to address the following questions:
Definition of concepts and terminology Sustainability: The concept of sustainability was placed firmly on the political agenda when the World Commission on Environment and Development (The Brundtland Commission) published their report “Our Common Future” in 1987. The report that became known as the Brundtland Report, defined sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”. Five aspects of particular importance to the sustainable development of towns and cities have been identified in the report “Towards an urban atlas: Assessment of spatial data on 25 European cities and urban areas” published by the European Environment Agency in 2002:
The European spatial development perspective (ESDP), initiated in 1997 and approved in 1999 at Potsdam, points out the importance and implications of spatial dimension development and conveys a vision for the future territory of the EU. Sustainability implies an interaction of environmental and socio-economic issues. The majority of the studies addressing urban issues have, until recently, almost ignored the spatial dimension, while urban planning studies very seldom take into account impacts on the hinterland in terms of resource use and loss of biodiversity, among other issues. Most research into the spatial organisation of the city and analysis of the spatial relationship between built-up areas and green space has been carried out with GIS mapping tools. These maps are a two dimensional representation of the city, and have therefore limited use when considering the three dimensional spatial qualities of the city. Definition of the city: To begin an analysis of the city it is important to identify the components of the city. The city considered as architecture comprises buildings and voids, where the voids make up the urban landscape. Definition of the urban landscape: The broadest definition of the urban landscape includes all the spaces between the buildings in the urban fabric, including mainly hard surfaced spaces such as streets, squares and playgrounds, “green” spaces such as gardens and parks and “blue” spaces such as river corridors and lakes. Starting at the level of the house, landscape and buildings can be integrated through roof gardens, turf roofs and climbing plants on building facades. At the level of the neighbourhood the landscape can be defined as streets, private and community gardens, playgrounds and local parks. At the district level the range of landscape types increases and includes district parks, cemeteries, institutional grounds, allotment gardens, sports facilities such as playing fields and tennis courts and car parks. At the metropolitan scale the urban landscape includes metropolitan parks, road and infrastructure corridors, river and wetland corridors and former industrial and derelict land. The urban fringe landscape is also considered at the metropolitan scale as it provides the landscape setting of the city and includes functions characteristic of the urban landscape. Methodology The relationship between city and nature or building and urban landscape can be studied through an analytical description of the city’s morphology and syntax. The analysis method used is based on Malene Hauxner’s “Værkanalyse” or “works analysis”. Copenhagen is chosen as a case study city. Copenhagen is chosen because the analysis method involves extensive site visits to assess the quality of the urban landscape. Additionally a 3D model of the city has been generated, which can be used as a tool to analyse spatial relationships. Spatial analysis of Greater Copenhagen will be carried out at different scales: the regional, district and local scale. The benefit of carrying out studies at different scales is to gain an understanding of how spatial structures at the local scale influence the spatial structure of the city at a regional scale and vice versa. At the regional scale the overall spatial organisation of the city and the relationship between city and countryside will be studied. The strategic urban landscape framework will be studied considering the urban spaces of strategic importance, for example spaces over a certain size (>5-10 ha). A building type and density study will also be carried out at the regional scale, defining areas of compact – high, open – high, compact - low and open - low development. Analysis of historic development based on historic maps and development plans will aid the understanding of the development of the city over time. At the district scale several areas can be selected and studied in more detail. A possible method is to select a district in each building type and density category. A study at this scale can analyse the relationship between buildings and landscape and the spatial qualities of the district in more detail. Within each district it may be useful to carry out more detailed analysis of developments at the local scale. Resources:The project is a Ph.D. study fully financed by the Centre for Forest, Landscape and Planning, KVL.
6. Pilot project: Indicators for ”hidden” urbanisation in peri-urban and rural areasGertrud Jørgensen, Center for Forest Landscape and Planning, Urban and Landscape Studies The aim of this project is to investigate whether and how simple indicators can be developed for measuring an urbanisation process in rural areas in Denmark. Ongoing research (Busck and Primdal 2005) in which a number of farms in the Copenhagen region has been studied over 20 years, suggests that important changes are taking place which can be characterised as an urbanisation process, as do other studies (Præstholm and Kristensen 2004), as described above in the project proposal Landscape as a resource for urban areas. As building for other purposes than farming in the rural districts is restricted, it may be suggested that an urbanisation process is taking place through changes in the use of existing buildings and farms, rather than change of the physical structures. The studies mentioned have been in depth studies restricted to local areas. This proposal is meant as a pilot project of how to develop general quantitative indicators, which can be used for monitoring development over time and measure geographical variations. The Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences has developed a simple way to extract indicators from the general agricultural registers in a GIS so as to make geographical analyses of structural development in farming (Kristensen et al 2005). The pilot project will discuss and develop a set of indicators for urbanisation of rural areas based on common and accessible agricultural and other data registers, and apply them in a GIS in order to discuss what urbanisation of rural areas is, whether and to which extent urbanisation of rural areas happen, and where this development takes place: is there a stronger pressure in the vicinity of major cities? How far does the influence of cities stretch, if any? 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